-
1 economic productivity
-
2 economic productivity
finance, business, economy• kansantaloudellinen tuottavuus -
3 productivity
nпроизводительность, продуктивностьto expand productivity — развивать / расширять производительность
- biological productivityto increase / to raise labor productivity — повышать производительность труда
- economic productivity
- falling productivity
- high productivity
- higher productivity
- improvements in industrial productivity
- industrial productivity
- labor productivity
- marginal productivity
- marketing productivity
- per capita productivity
- rise in labor productivity
- social labor productivity -
4 productivity
сущ.1) эк., стат. производительность (выработка продукции в расчете на одну единицу затраченного ресурса; обычно расчитывается путем деления объема полученного продукта на объем затраченных ресурсов; объем затраченных ресурсов может измеряться как в натуральном, так и в денежном выражении; очень часто используется в контексте производительности труда; в некоторых случаях расчет производительности представляется проблематичным, так как очень сложно измерить полученный продукт, напр., в ситуации с производительностью маркетинговых действий)Syn:See:CHILD [object\]: advertising productivity, labour productivity, marketing productivity, sales productivity CHILD [character\]:, marginal productivity2) эк. тр., стат. производительность (ежеквартальный макроэкономический индикатор, характеризующий изменение объема выпущенной продукции, приходящегося на одного работника; индикатор оказывает существенное влияние на анализ состояния экономики)See:3) с.-х. урожайность, плодородность, продуктивность (количество какого-л. полезного ресурса получаемого от одного животного или от единицы сельскохозяйственной площади)Syn:See:
* * *
производительность: выработка продукции в расчете на одного работника (рабочий час).* * *. . Словарь экономических терминов .* * *показатель объема производства на единицу вложенных ресурсов фирмы или экономики -
5 economic indicator
эк., стат. экономический показатель [индикатор\] (абсолютный или относительный показатель, характеризующий тенденции в протекании каких-л. экономических процессов на уровне экономики в целом, отдельных отраслей и рынков или отдельных экономических субъектов; напр., на макроуровне это ВВП, темп экономического роста, совокупный спрос, уровень безработицы и т. д., на макроуровне — размер прибыли компании, оборачиваемость активов компании, соотношение величины дивидендов и прибыли на одну акцию и т. д.)Syn:See:macroeconomic indicator, microeconomic indicator, federal budget 2), social indicator, budget, customer demand, personal spending, consumer credit, inflation, money supply, unemployment, employment report, jobless claims, help-wanted index, productivity, factory orders, building permits, housing starts, Redbook, unit labour cost, business inventories, wholesale inventory, wholesale price index, consumer price index, Purchasing Manager Index, Consumer Confidence Index, capacity utilization, balance of trade, balance of payments, import prices, export prices, Confederation of British Industry, coincident indicators, lagging indicators, leading indicators, budget assumption, comparable prices, deflator, building permits, budget assumption, capping, economic aggregate, federal budget, general price level, genuine progress indicator, inflow of funds* * *1) экономический показатель; 2) экономические показатели* * *. статистические данные, показывающие общие тенденции в экономике; . Глоссарий финансовых и биржевых терминов . -
6 economic indicator
эк., стат. экономический показатель (сводный, усредненный по экономике в целом показатель объема производства и потребления, доходов и расходов, структуры, эффективности, уровня благосостояния, экспорта и импорта, темпов экономического роста и др.; отражает общие тенденции в экономике)Syn:See:budget, customer demand, consumer credit, money supply, unemployment, employment report, jobless claims, productivity, factory orders, building permits, new home sales, housing starts, Redbook, unit labour cost, wholesale inventories, consumer price index, Purchasing Manager Index, Consumer Confidence Index, capacity utilization, import prices, export prices, Confederation of British Industry, coincident indicators, lagging indicators, leading indicators, comparable prices, deflatorbudget assumption, capping, economic aggregates, federal budget, general price level, genuine progress indicator, inflow of fundsThe new English-Russian dictionary of financial markets > economic indicator
-
7 economic growth
экономический рост
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]
экономический рост
Объемная, количественная сторона развития экономической системы, характеризующаяся расширением ее (системы) масштабов. Не единственная, но наиболее распространенная мера Э.р. - темпы изменения валового национального дохода (или валового внутреннего продукта, или иного показателя объема производства) в расчете на душу населения (с учетом изменения цен). На протяжении истории человечества темпы Э.р. отдельных стран и в целом мирового хозяйства варьировались в широких пределах, возрастая или снижаясь в зависимости от социально-экономического устройства, международных отношений стран (война или мир), темпов научно-технического прогресса, демографических процессов и других обстоятельств Отсюда следует вывод, что у каждого общественного устройства (феодализм, капитализм и т.д.) есть свой предел Э.р., и что достижение экономикой СССР уровня, предельного для социалистического роста, привело к длительному застою, а затем, на переломе 1980-х — 1990-х годов — к крушению социалистической системы. Этот вывод (гипотезу) высказал Е.Гайдар еще в 1997 году в книге «Аномалии экономического роста» (Гайдар Е.Т. Собр.соч. в 15 томах, том 2.). На рассмотренные здесь долговременные поступательные тенденции Э.р. в условиях рыночной экономики неизбежно накладываются колебания, в том числе разного рода экономические циклы, образующие последовательность подъемов и спадов производства — от «длинных волн» Д.Кондратьева, до сезонных колебаний (См. Экономические циклы). В статистике общая тенденция Э.р., на фоне которого происходят разного рода флюктуации, называется трендом. Основные типы экономического роста: Устойчивый, длительный Э.р.. Изучавший этот тип Э.р. американский экономист У.Ростоу отметил, что он часто наблюдается в странах, только начавших с низкого уровня процесс экономического развития. При этом последовательно растет ВВП на душу населения, создаются новые рабочие места, наращиваются инвестиции и повышается благосостояние населения. Нулевой рост. Концепция нулевого Э.р. возникла как реакция на обострившиеся в ХХ столетии экологические проблемы, связанные с антропогенным загрязнением среды обитания людей и углубляющимся исчерпанием ресурсов Земли. Ряд экологов, экономистов и политиков (в основном — европейских) выдвинули идею нулевого роста, при котором, по их мнению, эти проблемы могут быть решены. Если в развитых странах эта концепция и находит определенный отклик, то, естественно, ее не приемлет население «молодых» развивающихся стран. Равновесный сбалансированный рост - такой рост экономики, при котором темп прироста запасов всех продуктов на протяжении рассматриваемого промежутка времени — постоянный (по другому определению — при котором темпы развития отраслей или секторов экономики внутренне согласованны. Подробнее см.. Равновесный сбалансированный рост. Экстенсивный и интенсивный Э.р. — см. Интенсивный тип экономического роста, Экстенсивный тип экономического роста. Э.р. требует выделения для него части общественных ресурсов в ущерб потреблению. Темпы Э.р. определяются при прочих равных условиях объемом накоплений. и экономической эффективностью их инвестирования в производство. Качество Э.р. в конечном счете определяется той ценой, которую общество вынуждено платить за этот рост. Подробнее см. в статье Качество экономического роста. Устойчивых факторов, которые реально влияют на экономический рост, немного. Например, очень важны экономические и политические институты — права собственности, вообще качество правовой системы, финансовая система. На рост влияют также географические и исторические факторы, предопределяющие уровень развития институтов: расположение страны ( климат, доступ к торговым путям), колониальное прошлое, язык и религия, этническая неоднородность, наличие природных ресурсов. Исследователи обнаружили, что изобилие природных ресурсов (и преобладание их доли в экспорте страны) плохо влияет на рост, оказывая негативное воздействие в первую очередь на качество экономических институтов. Качество образования положительно влияет на рост. См. также: Качество экономического роста, Кризисы в экономике, Рост в годовом исчислении, Современный экономический рост, Темпы роста,Теории экономического роста.
[ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]EN
economic growth
An increase over successive periods in the productivity and wealth of a household, country or region, as measured by one of several possible variables, such as the gross domestic product. (Source: ODE)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]Тематики
EN
DE
FR
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > economic growth
-
8 ECONOMIC GROWTH
Экономический рост
Постепенное увеличение реального объема производства в стране, измеряемое приростом реального ВНП, ВВП или дохода на душу населения. Рост дохода на душу населения увязывает рост общего объема производства в стране с ростом численности населения. Если увеличение общего объема производства лишь немного опережает прирост населения, средний уровень жизни населения повысится незначительно. Достижение высоких темпов экономического роста является одной из четырех основных целей макроэкономической политики (см. Macroeconomic policy). Экономический рост способствует процветанию всего общества, дает возможность увеличивать потребление товаров и услуг. Однако слишком быстрый экономический рост может вызвать истощение природных ресурсов и загрязнение окружающей среды. Способность экономики к росту зависит от ряда факторов: а) увеличения запасов и качества основного капитала (накопления капитала) (см. Investment); б) увеличения количества и качества трудовых ресурсов; в) увеличения количества и качества природных ресурсов; г) эффективного использования всех производственных ресурсов для повышения производительности (см. Productivity); д) разработки и внедрения новых технологий и товаров (см. Technological progressiveness); е) уровня совокупного спроса, который должен быть достаточно высок для обеспечения полного использования всего возросшего производственного потенциала экономики страны. При помощи мер фискальной и денежно-кредитной политики государство может стимулировать рост, увеличивая текущие расходы и денежную массу и сокращая процентные ставки. Государство также может поощрять инициативу предприятий и предоставлять им средства для научных исследований и повышения производительности труда (см. Supply-side economics, Industrial policy).Новый англо-русский словарь-справочник. Экономика. > ECONOMIC GROWTH
-
9 development planning
планирование развития
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
development planning
The act or process of formulating a course of action that promotes the economic advancement of a region or people, particularly in countries known to have low levels of economic productivity and technological sophistication. (Source: OED / WBG)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]Тематики
EN
DE
FR
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > development planning
-
10 Economy
Portugal's economy, under the influence of the European Economic Community (EEC), and later with the assistance of the European Union (EU), grew rapidly in 1985-86; through 1992, the average annual growth was 4-5 percent. While such growth rates did not last into the late 1990s, portions of Portugal's society achieved unprecedented prosperity, although poverty remained entrenched. It is important, however, to place this current growth, which includes some not altogether desirable developments, in historical perspective. On at least three occasions in this century, Portugal's economy has experienced severe dislocation and instability: during the turbulent First Republic (1911-25); during the Estado Novo, when the world Depression came into play (1930-39); and during the aftermath of the Revolution of 25 April, 1974. At other periods, and even during the Estado Novo, there were eras of relatively steady growth and development, despite the fact that Portugal's weak economy lagged behind industrialized Western Europe's economies, perhaps more than Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar wished to admit to the public or to foreigners.For a number of reasons, Portugal's backward economy underwent considerable growth and development following the beginning of the colonial wars in Africa in early 1961. Recent research findings suggest that, contrary to the "stagnation thesis" that states that the Estado Novo economy during the last 14 years of its existence experienced little or no growth, there were important changes, policy shifts, structural evolution, and impressive growth rates. In fact, the average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate (1961-74) was about 7 percent. The war in Africa was one significant factor in the post-1961 economic changes. The new costs of finance and spending on the military and police actions in the African and Asian empires in 1961 and thereafter forced changes in economic policy.Starting in 1963-64, the relatively closed economy was opened up to foreign investment, and Lisbon began to use deficit financing and more borrowing at home and abroad. Increased foreign investment, residence, and technical and military assistance also had effects on economic growth and development. Salazar's government moved toward greater trade and integration with various international bodies by signing agreements with the European Free Trade Association and several international finance groups. New multinational corporations began to operate in the country, along with foreign-based banks. Meanwhile, foreign tourism increased massively from the early 1960s on, and the tourism industry experienced unprecedented expansion. By 1973-74, Portugal received more than 8 million tourists annually for the first time.Under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano, other important economic changes occurred. High annual economic growth rates continued until the world energy crisis inflation and a recession hit Portugal in 1973. Caetano's system, through new development plans, modernized aspects of the agricultural, industrial, and service sectors and linked reform in education with plans for social change. It also introduced cadres of forward-looking technocrats at various levels. The general motto of Caetano's version of the Estado Novo was "Evolution with Continuity," but he was unable to solve the key problems, which were more political and social than economic. As the boom period went "bust" in 1973-74, and growth slowed greatly, it became clear that Caetano and his governing circle had no way out of the African wars and could find no easy compromise solution to the need to democratize Portugal's restive society. The economic background of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was a severe energy shortage caused by the world energy crisis and Arab oil boycott, as well as high general inflation, increasing debts from the African wars, and a weakening currency. While the regime prescribed greater Portuguese investment in Africa, in fact Portuguese businesses were increasingly investing outside of the escudo area in Western Europe and the United States.During the two years of political and social turmoil following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the economy weakened. Production, income, reserves, and annual growth fell drastically during 1974-76. Amidst labor-management conflict, there was a burst of strikes, and income and productivity plummeted. Ironically, one factor that cushioned the economic impact of the revolution was the significant gold reserve supply that the Estado Novo had accumulated, principally during Salazar's years. Another factor was emigration from Portugal and the former colonies in Africa, which to a degree reduced pressures for employment. The sudden infusion of more than 600,000 refugees from Africa did increase the unemployment rate, which in 1975 was 10-15 percent. But, by 1990, the unemployment rate was down to about 5-6 percent.After 1985, Portugal's economy experienced high growth rates again, which averaged 4-5 percent through 1992. Substantial economic assistance from the EEC and individual countries such as the United States, as well as the political stability and administrative continuity that derived from majority Social Democratic Party (PSD) governments starting in mid-1987, supported new growth and development in the EEC's second poorest country. With rapid infrastruc-tural change and some unregulated development, Portugal's leaders harbored a justifiable concern that a fragile environment and ecology were under new, unacceptable pressures. Among other improvements in the standard of living since 1974 was an increase in per capita income. By 1991, the average minimum monthly wage was about 40,000 escudos, and per capita income was about $5,000 per annum. By the end of the 20th century, despite continuing poverty at several levels in Portugal, Portugal's economy had made significant progress. In the space of 15 years, Portugal had halved the large gap in living standards between itself and the remainder of the EU. For example, when Portugal joined the EU in 1986, its GDP, in terms of purchasing power-parity, was only 53 percent of the EU average. By 2000, Portugal's GDP had reached 75 percent of the EU average, a considerable achievement. Whether Portugal could narrow this gap even further in a reasonable amount of time remained a sensitive question in Lisbon. Besides structural poverty and the fact that, in 2006, the EU largesse in structural funds (loans and grants) virtually ceased, a major challenge for Portugal's economy will be to reduce the size of the public sector (about 50 percent of GDP is in the central government) to increase productivity, attract outside investment, and diversify the economy. For Portugal's economic planners, the 21st century promises to be challenging. -
11 PEP
1) Биология: phosphoenole pyruvate2) Медицина: phosphoenolpyruvate, preejection period (период изоволюмического сокращения), Public Education Program, постконтактная (химио)профилактика (post-exposure (chemo)prophylaxis)3) Американизм: Peace, Economy, Prosperity4) Военный термин: Photographic Exploitation Products, Post Event Plan, Power Entry Panel, Production Engineering and Planning, Productivity Enhancement Program, performance evaluation and prediction, performance evaluation program, personnel exchange program, physical education program, plant equipment package, platform electronic package, platform evaluation program, point expanding projectile, power evaluation program, power extension plant, proficiency examination program, program element plan, program evaluation procedure, program evaluation process, promotion evaluation pattern5) Техника: pentaethylphenol, performance enhancement program, peripheral entry panel, positron, electron, proton, power extension package, producibility engineering planning, productivity enhancement package, programmable entry panel, prosphoenole pyruvate, proton-electron-positron storage ring, prototyping, evaluation and programming system6) Сельское хозяйство: Poultry & Egg Promotion, Poultry Expansion Program7) Шутливое выражение: Python Enhancement Proposal8) Химия: Physical Equivalent Practice9) Строительство: Promotion of European Passive Houses10) Бухгалтерия: Productivity Efficiency And Profits11) Финансы: модель привязки валютных курсов стран-экспортеров к стоимости экспортируемого товара (Peg the Exprot Price, предложена в начале 2000-х годов Джеффри Франкелем (http://ksghome.harvard.edu/\PEPjfrankel/PEP%20Index-JPM.pdf)), политически значимое лицо (politically exposed person)12) Телекоммуникации: Partitioned Emulation Program, Policy Enforcement Point13) Сокращение: Peak Envelope Power, Political and Economic Planning, Post Exposure Prophylaxis (antibiotic treatment after exposure to biohazard), Productivity Enhancement Program (USA), Productivity Enhancement Project, productibility, engineering, planning, planar epitaxial passivated (transistor), Paternalistic, Economic, Participative (The three main motivational styles found in organizations and management.), Politically Exposed Person14) Университет: Personal Elective Project, Personalized Education Plan, Pharmacology Education Partnership, Pre Engineering Program, Professional Experience Program, Project Exploration Program, Publications, Education, And Presentations15) Физика: Pauli Exclusion Principle16) Физиология: Positive Expiratory Pressure, Post Exposure Prophylaxis17) Электроника: Parent And Educator Partnership, Providing For Exceptional Potential18) Вычислительная техника: Polymer Electronic Printing, методика оценки программ, Personal Employee Portal (IBM), Personal Exam Prep (MS, ATEC), Python Enhancement Proposal (Python), Packetized Ensemble Protocol (Telebit)19) Биохимия: Primate Equilibrium Platform20) Банковское дело: программа льготной продажи акций служащим компании (personal equity plan)21) Воздухоплавание: Propulsion and Energetics Panel22) Фирменный знак: Precision Engine Parts, Professional Event Photography23) Экология: Precipitation Enhancement Project, phosphorus elimination plant25) Деловая лексика: Profit Enhancement Process, программа продажи акций служащим компании (personal equity plan)26) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Performance Enhancement Plan27) Образование: Parent Educator Partnership, Parents Educating Parents, Parents Educators And Publishers, Personal Education Plan, Personal Enrichment Program, Potentially English Proficient, Primary Enrichment Program, Public Education Partnership, Pupil Esteem Program28) Инвестиции: personal equity plan29) Сетевые технологии: Packet Encoding Protocol, протокол пакетного кодирования30) ЕБРР: private equity plan31) Автоматика: Precision Engineering Program32) Контроль качества: product excellence program33) Сахалин Р: Project Execution Plan34) Расширение файла: Packet Exchange Protocol, Programme Evaluation Procedure35) Эволюция: ПЭП, популярная эволюционная психология, popular evolutionary psychology36) Электротехника: pulse effective power37) Высокочастотная электроника: primary entry point38) Должность: Personal Education Partner, Personal Efficiency Program, Positive Enhanced Performance, Professional Employer Panel39) Чат: People Enjoying People, Pester Every Person40) NYSE. Pepsico, Inc.41) НАСА: Propellant Equilibrium Program42) Клинические исследования: primary endpoint (основная конечная точка) -
12 pep
1) Биология: phosphoenole pyruvate2) Медицина: phosphoenolpyruvate, preejection period (период изоволюмического сокращения), Public Education Program, постконтактная (химио)профилактика (post-exposure (chemo)prophylaxis)3) Американизм: Peace, Economy, Prosperity4) Военный термин: Photographic Exploitation Products, Post Event Plan, Power Entry Panel, Production Engineering and Planning, Productivity Enhancement Program, performance evaluation and prediction, performance evaluation program, personnel exchange program, physical education program, plant equipment package, platform electronic package, platform evaluation program, point expanding projectile, power evaluation program, power extension plant, proficiency examination program, program element plan, program evaluation procedure, program evaluation process, promotion evaluation pattern5) Техника: pentaethylphenol, performance enhancement program, peripheral entry panel, positron, electron, proton, power extension package, producibility engineering planning, productivity enhancement package, programmable entry panel, prosphoenole pyruvate, proton-electron-positron storage ring, prototyping, evaluation and programming system6) Сельское хозяйство: Poultry & Egg Promotion, Poultry Expansion Program7) Шутливое выражение: Python Enhancement Proposal8) Химия: Physical Equivalent Practice9) Строительство: Promotion of European Passive Houses10) Бухгалтерия: Productivity Efficiency And Profits11) Финансы: модель привязки валютных курсов стран-экспортеров к стоимости экспортируемого товара (Peg the Exprot Price, предложена в начале 2000-х годов Джеффри Франкелем (http://ksghome.harvard.edu/\PEPjfrankel/PEP%20Index-JPM.pdf)), политически значимое лицо (politically exposed person)12) Телекоммуникации: Partitioned Emulation Program, Policy Enforcement Point13) Сокращение: Peak Envelope Power, Political and Economic Planning, Post Exposure Prophylaxis (antibiotic treatment after exposure to biohazard), Productivity Enhancement Program (USA), Productivity Enhancement Project, productibility, engineering, planning, planar epitaxial passivated (transistor), Paternalistic, Economic, Participative (The three main motivational styles found in organizations and management.), Politically Exposed Person14) Университет: Personal Elective Project, Personalized Education Plan, Pharmacology Education Partnership, Pre Engineering Program, Professional Experience Program, Project Exploration Program, Publications, Education, And Presentations15) Физика: Pauli Exclusion Principle16) Физиология: Positive Expiratory Pressure, Post Exposure Prophylaxis17) Электроника: Parent And Educator Partnership, Providing For Exceptional Potential18) Вычислительная техника: Polymer Electronic Printing, методика оценки программ, Personal Employee Portal (IBM), Personal Exam Prep (MS, ATEC), Python Enhancement Proposal (Python), Packetized Ensemble Protocol (Telebit)19) Биохимия: Primate Equilibrium Platform20) Банковское дело: программа льготной продажи акций служащим компании (personal equity plan)21) Воздухоплавание: Propulsion and Energetics Panel22) Фирменный знак: Precision Engine Parts, Professional Event Photography23) Экология: Precipitation Enhancement Project, phosphorus elimination plant25) Деловая лексика: Profit Enhancement Process, программа продажи акций служащим компании (personal equity plan)26) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Performance Enhancement Plan27) Образование: Parent Educator Partnership, Parents Educating Parents, Parents Educators And Publishers, Personal Education Plan, Personal Enrichment Program, Potentially English Proficient, Primary Enrichment Program, Public Education Partnership, Pupil Esteem Program28) Инвестиции: personal equity plan29) Сетевые технологии: Packet Encoding Protocol, протокол пакетного кодирования30) ЕБРР: private equity plan31) Автоматика: Precision Engineering Program32) Контроль качества: product excellence program33) Сахалин Р: Project Execution Plan34) Расширение файла: Packet Exchange Protocol, Programme Evaluation Procedure35) Эволюция: ПЭП, популярная эволюционная психология, popular evolutionary psychology36) Электротехника: pulse effective power37) Высокочастотная электроника: primary entry point38) Должность: Personal Education Partner, Personal Efficiency Program, Positive Enhanced Performance, Professional Employer Panel39) Чат: People Enjoying People, Pester Every Person40) NYSE. Pepsico, Inc.41) НАСА: Propellant Equilibrium Program42) Клинические исследования: primary endpoint (основная конечная точка) -
13 Commission
-
14 council
-
15 index
индекс, указатель; каталог; показатель -
16 Council
-
17 development
n1) развитие, совершенствование, доводка2) разработка; проектирование3) разработка; освоение4) застройка; строительство5) выведение (сорта)6) pl событие
- accelerated development
- advanced development
- agricultural development
- balanced development
- business development
- commercial development
- economic development
- engineering development
- executive development
- exploratory development
- export development
- general development
- housing development
- industrial development
- inflationary development
- land development
- long-run development
- long-term development
- management development
- management system development
- market development
- marketing development
- marketing strategy development
- model development
- natural development
- new product development
- oilfield development
- operational development
- operational system development
- peaceful development
- personnel development
- planned development
- population development
- price development
- priority development
- product development
- property development
- prototype development
- public development
- rapid development
- recent development
- recreational development
- regular development
- residential development
- resource development
- rural development
- satellite developments
- social development
- systematic development
- technological development
- trade development
- unbalanced development
- uneven development
- world economic development
- development of contacts
- development of cooperation
- development of economic cooperation
- development of economic resources
- development of economic ties
- development of the economy
- development of export
- development of information science
- development of industry
- development of labour productivity
- development of land
- development of a market
- development of methods
- development of the national economy
- development of natural resources
- development of new equipment
- development of a process
- development of a product
- development of production
- development of a production process
- development of a project
- development of tourism
- development of trade
- development of trade relations
- development of vocational competence
- authorize development
- encourage development
- facilitate development
- further development
- promote developmentEnglish-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > development
-
18 near cash
!гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:"consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;" "the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;" "strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and"the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:"the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and"the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)"Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and"Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.More information about DEL and AME is set out below.In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets."Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest."Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:"Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and"The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:"provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;" "enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;" "introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and"not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:"an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;" "an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;" "to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with"further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.This document was updated on 19 December 2005.Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money————————————————————————————————————————"GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money"————————————————————————————————————————GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money————————————————————————————————————————GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.———————————————————————————————————————— -
19 EPA
1) Компьютерная техника: Enterprise Portal Archive2) Геология: End Point Adjustment3) Авиация: Evasive Plan of Action4) Медицина: (eicosapentaenoic acid) эйкозапентаеновая кислота5) Американизм: Every Permit Approved6) Военный термин: European Procurement Agency, Evasion Plan of Action, Extended Planning Annex7) Техника: electrical penetration assembly, electron probe analysis, endoatmospheric penetration aids, exoatmospheric penetration aids8) Шутливое выражение: Environmental Poison Agency9) Химия: этилфосфоновая кислота (ЭФК) (Ethyl Phosphonic Acid), eicosapentaenoic acid (эйкозопентаеновая кислота, ЭПК)10) Юридический термин: Enduring Power Of Attorney, Extra Privilege Agreement11) Автомобильный термин: Агентство по охране окружающей среды12) Биржевой термин: Equity Principal Additions13) Грубое выражение: Extendable Penis Assistants14) Оптика: European Photonics Association15) Сокращение: Economic Planning Agency, Emergency Powers Act, European Productivity Agency16) Вычислительная техника: Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Protection Agency (USA, organization)17) Нефть: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Управление по охране окружающей США, Управление по охране окружающей среды, environmental protection agency (USA), Управление по охране окружающей среды (США, Environmental Protection Agency)18) Иммунология: Evaluation Potency And Activity19) Космонавтика: Environmental Protection Agency (USA; Ghana)20) Механика: End Point Adjustment (серво-привод)21) Парфюмерия: Агентство по защите окружающей среды22) Фирменный знак: Epic Portrait Associated23) Экология: Environment Protection Act24) Деловая лексика: Economic Partnership Agreement, управление экономического планирования (economic planning agency)25) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Environmental Protection Act (USA), Environmental Protection Agency (USA), Агентство охраны окружающей среды (Environmental Protection Agency), Ассоциация охраны окружающей среды (Environmental Protection Association), Exploration and Production Asia (Pacific Region)26) Нефтегазовая техника Environment Protection Agency27) Образование: Environmental Protection Division28) Окружающая среда: Управление по охране окружающей среды США29) Планирование: орган планирования экономики (economic planning agency)30) Автоматика: Environmental Protection Act, enhanced performance architecture31) Пластмассы: Environmental Protection Agency (US Government)32) Сахалин Р: Environmental Protection Association33) Химическое оружие: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ethyl phosphonic acid34) Нефть и газ: Environmental Protection Agency (US), US EPA35) Должность: Eligible Performer Audition36) Правительство: East Palo Alto, California37) НАСА: Energetic Particle Analyzer -
20 epa
1) Компьютерная техника: Enterprise Portal Archive2) Геология: End Point Adjustment3) Авиация: Evasive Plan of Action4) Медицина: (eicosapentaenoic acid) эйкозапентаеновая кислота5) Американизм: Every Permit Approved6) Военный термин: European Procurement Agency, Evasion Plan of Action, Extended Planning Annex7) Техника: electrical penetration assembly, electron probe analysis, endoatmospheric penetration aids, exoatmospheric penetration aids8) Шутливое выражение: Environmental Poison Agency9) Химия: этилфосфоновая кислота (ЭФК) (Ethyl Phosphonic Acid), eicosapentaenoic acid (эйкозопентаеновая кислота, ЭПК)10) Юридический термин: Enduring Power Of Attorney, Extra Privilege Agreement11) Автомобильный термин: Агентство по охране окружающей среды12) Биржевой термин: Equity Principal Additions13) Грубое выражение: Extendable Penis Assistants14) Оптика: European Photonics Association15) Сокращение: Economic Planning Agency, Emergency Powers Act, European Productivity Agency16) Вычислительная техника: Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Protection Agency (USA, organization)17) Нефть: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Управление по охране окружающей США, Управление по охране окружающей среды, environmental protection agency (USA), Управление по охране окружающей среды (США, Environmental Protection Agency)18) Иммунология: Evaluation Potency And Activity19) Космонавтика: Environmental Protection Agency (USA; Ghana)20) Механика: End Point Adjustment (серво-привод)21) Парфюмерия: Агентство по защите окружающей среды22) Фирменный знак: Epic Portrait Associated23) Экология: Environment Protection Act24) Деловая лексика: Economic Partnership Agreement, управление экономического планирования (economic planning agency)25) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Environmental Protection Act (USA), Environmental Protection Agency (USA), Агентство охраны окружающей среды (Environmental Protection Agency), Ассоциация охраны окружающей среды (Environmental Protection Association), Exploration and Production Asia (Pacific Region)26) Нефтегазовая техника Environment Protection Agency27) Образование: Environmental Protection Division28) Окружающая среда: Управление по охране окружающей среды США29) Планирование: орган планирования экономики (economic planning agency)30) Автоматика: Environmental Protection Act, enhanced performance architecture31) Пластмассы: Environmental Protection Agency (US Government)32) Сахалин Р: Environmental Protection Association33) Химическое оружие: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ethyl phosphonic acid34) Нефть и газ: Environmental Protection Agency (US), US EPA35) Должность: Eligible Performer Audition36) Правительство: East Palo Alto, California37) НАСА: Energetic Particle Analyzer
Страницы
См. также в других словарях:
ECONOMIC AFFAIRS — THE PRE MANDATE (LATE OTTOMAN) PERIOD Geography and Borders In September 1923 a new political entity was formally recognized by the international community. Palestine, or Ereẓ Israel as Jews have continued to refer to it for 2,000 years,… … Encyclopedia of Judaism
Productivity — in economics refers to measures of output from production processes, per unit of input. Labor productivity, for example, is typically measured as a ratio of output per labor hour, an input. Productivity may be conceived of as a measure of the… … Wikipedia
Productivity model — Productivity in economics is the ratio of what is produced to what is required to produce. Productivity is the measure on production efficiency. Productivity model is a measurement method which is used in practice for measuring productivity.… … Wikipedia
Economic development — is the development of economic wealth of countries or regions for the well being of their inhabitants. From a policy perspective, economic development can be defined as efforts that seek to improve the economic well being and quality of life for… … Wikipedia
Economic democracy — is a socioeconomic philosophy that suggests a shift in decision making power from a small minority of corporate shareholders to a larger majority of public stakeholders. There is no single definition or approach for economic democracy, but most… … Wikipedia
Economic freedom — is freedom to produce, trade and consume any goods and services acquired without the use of force, fraud or theft. Economic freedom is embodied in the rule of law, property rights and freedom of contract, and characterized by external and… … Wikipedia
Economic history — is the study of how economic phenomena evolved in the past. Analysis in economic history is undertaken using a combination of historical methods, statistical methods and by applying economic theory to historical situations. The topic includes… … Wikipedia
Economic restructuring — refers to the phenomenon of Western urban areas shifting from a manufacturing to a service sector economic base. This transformation has impacted demographics including income distribution, employment, and social hierarchy; institutional… … Wikipedia
Economic history of the Ottoman Empire — covers the period 1299 1923. The economic history falls into two distinctive sub periods.Fact|date=July 2008 The first is the classic era (enlargement), which comprised a closed agricultural economy, showing regional distinctions within the… … Wikipedia
productivity — 1809, quality of being productive, from PRODUCTIVE (Cf. productive) + ITY (Cf. ity). Economic sense of rate of output per unit is from 1899 … Etymology dictionary
Economic growth — GDP real growth rates, 1990–1998 and 1990–2006, in selected countries … Wikipedia
